Emergence of Mao Zedong

Early Life

Mao was the eldest child to survive childbirth
His father was a farmer and was fairly well off
Mao was expelled from or asked to leave from at least three schools for being headstrong and disobedient
He was widowed at 16
After being widowed, Mao went to a teacher college in 1911
It was there that Mao got caught up on issues through newspapers
Manchu rule was “foreign” domination because the Manchus were not Han Chinese (the group that formed 94% of the population)
After college, Mao worked as a part-time history teacher in a primary school

Becoming Communist

Mao’s home province was Hunan, with its capital and trading port being Changsha
There were a number of foreign interests in Changsha, so much so that Japan, the U.S., and Britain opened consulates there
Radical students, including Mao, wanted to oust the provincial warlord and went to Peking to unsuccessfully lobby the government
On his way back to Hunan, he encountered Professor Chen Tu-hsiu, China’s foremost Marxist
He was in the middle of forming a Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
In 1920, he gave him the assignment of opening a bookshop in Changsha to sell Party literature
In 1921, Mao became provincial Party leader
Mao did not inspire a passionate following through his oratory, or ideological appeal
He simply sought willing recruits among his immediate circle; people who would take orders

Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Gains Power

In 1923, under pressure from the USSR, the CCP joined with the GMD
Sun Yat-sen wanted Soviet aid so that he could conquer China
The Soviets wanted Outer Mongolia and the province of Xinjiang
Since most Communists hated the GMD and didn’t want to work with them, Mao saw opportunity
Mao worked hard for the GMD and rose in power in the Communist party
In 1925, Sun Yat-sen died. A friend of Mao’s, Wang Ching-wei, led the Nationalists
Under Wang Ching-wei, 1/3 of the congress were Communists, although there were far more Nationalists

Split of the GMD and CCP

In the CCP, mob violence was condoned by Moscow and practiced by grassroots peasant associations. The Nationalists didn’t like the violence
In April 1927, the Peking authorities raided Russian premises and seized documents that revealed Moscow trying to overthrow the Peking government and there were Soviet links with the Chinese communists
The Nationalists needed to take decisive action to dissociate themselves with the Russians and CCP or else they could be seen as part of the conspiracy to turn China into a Soviet satellite
Chiang Kai-shek, the Nationalist Party #2 member and leader of the Nationalist army, took over the Nationalist party
He began organizing massacres of left-wing members of the GMD, especially those who were also members of the CCP

Truce

Mao fled to the countryside (Hunan and Jiangxi), where he established independent soviets and the Red Army
From 1930-1936, Chiang Kai-shek led military campaigns against the Communists, while the communists defended themselves with guerilla tactics
Long March – 1934-35
Red Army retreated using twisting, unpredictable patterns
Split into smaller units that were harder to find
Out of 87,000 men, less than 10,000 survived the 9,000 km march
In December 1936:
The communists settled in Yan’an in Shanxi
A truce occurred to help protect the country against the Japanese

Sino-Japanese War and the CCP Build-Up

From 1937-1945, the communists:
Expanded their military forces from 500,000 to 1 million
Established political control over as many as 90 million people
Were given weapons by the U.S. to help fight the Japanese
Nonetheless, the Nationalists did most of the fighting

Relationship Between Leadership and the Masses

Mao developed a program of contact with the masses that became known as the “mass line”
Trained communists were sent in groups into the communities, where they said they had come to listen to the desires and ideas of the people
On their return, the party would then learn what measures would appeal and adapt to their own policies which would be presented to the people
It was a powerful tool of propaganda
By 1945, the communists had reached 100 million people and the mass line was carried to the people by 1 million members

Chiang and the Nationalists

Chiang and the Nationalists were set back by:
Corruption
Brutality
Incompetence
Inefficiency
Hyperinflation
Sino-Japanese War
Arms that the U.S. gave to the Nationalists, but the Red Army captured them
People lost confidence and longed for an end to famine, death, and civil war

Controlling the Newcomers

CCP newcomers enrolled in “schools” to be trained and indoctrinated. These schools were in poor conditions, had little food, and no medicine
Leaving the school would be considered desertion, with execution likely

Yenan Terror

Mao used a Chinese KGB to seek out and execute anyone determined to be a spy
Mao asserted that Communist organizations in the Nationalist areas were spy rings. Most of the newcomers came from these areas
Thousands were arrested and thrown into prison-caves
The imprisoned came under pressure to confess being spies and to denounce others
Sleep deprivation, whipping, hanging by the wrists, and other forms of torture became the norm
At mass rallies, newcomers were forced to confess being spies and name others in front of large crowds
All forms of relaxation, like singing, dancing, and even humor were stopped
Thought examination required you to write everything down that wasn’t good for the Party and write down information about other people as well
No outside press was available, no radio, no letters
There was no room for outside thought – everyone was turned into a robot

From Hero to Enemy

Chiang wasn’t hated until the Yenan Terror:
Chiang got America and Britain to concede their territorial concessions
He did away with the warlords and unified the country against the war with Japan
He got China’s permanent seat and veto on the UN Security Council

Mao Becomes Supreme Party Leader

In early 1945, Mao convened the Party congress
He had delayed the meeting to make sure he had absolute control
Most of the delegates at the meeting had been terrorized or were new appointments
Mao declared himself the supreme leader

Post Sino-Japanese War

The USSR launched Operation August Storm in the last month of the war against Japan
This was a successful invasion of Manchuria, which the Soviets occupied until the end of the war
Once the war was over, Manchuria was turned over to the CCP, and there was nothing Chiang Kai-shek could do
With the dropping of the atomic bombs, Japan unconditionally surrendered
Japanese troops were ordered to surrender only to the Nationalists
However, the Nationalists didn’t occupy some of the areas – the CCP did
When the Japanese withdrew, the CCP were able to take over large areas

The Marshall Mission

After WWII, Secretary of State George Marshall negotiated a cease-fire between the KMT and CCP
The Nationalists demilitarized 1.5 million troops, most of which belonged to warlords
Nothing was done to help them integrate back into civilian life
As a result, many joined the communists
They used their knowledge of where former Japanese weapon depots were located to stockpile weapons
Nationalist forces ignored these stockpiles because American weapons were better and they thought the warlord troops were too uneducated and illiterate to operate them
Many warlord troops actually collaborated with the Japanese so they knew exactly where the depots were and how to operate the weapons
They showed the communists how to work them

Civil War Again

In April 1946, serious fighting broke out again between the armies of the GMD and CCP
By mid-1947, the Nationalist army was overstretched in occupying all the areas gained, and a successful Communist counter-offensive began in Manchuria and swept the country

End of the GMD

In Jan. 1949, Chiang resigned from the presidency and asked the U.S. to mediate with the CCP, hoping to retain the south
The CCP, sensing victory, was no longer interested in an armistice. Their advance continued
On October 1, 1949, the People’s Republic of China was proclaimed by Mao in Beijing

Results of the Chinese Civil War

25% of the world’s population just became communist
U.S. aided the Nationalists, so this foreign influence helped this group to lose support
The CCP used guerilla tactics effectively, which demoralized the KMT
600,000 troops and 2 million refugees fled to Taiwan
Many Chinese experts (“China Hands”) in the U.S. government were blamed for the loss of China and consequently had their careers destroyed by McCarthy
This caused there to be less Asian advisors in government, possibly causing Kennedy to develop a faulty policy in Vietnam
Truman and his Democratic party lost political support, so it caused Lyndon Johnson to be determined to uphold South Vietnam at all costs
Relations between the People’s Republic of China (China) and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were tense and often drew the United States into defending Taiwan

Initial Problems

During the Civil War:
There was only a primitive system of communications, transportation, factories, and canals
Modern industrial production was concentrated in a few centers which had come under foreign influence
Unemployment was widespread
Inflation was staggering
The position of women in society led to the depression of half of the workforce
In many areas, opponents outnumbered supporters
Many unsympathetic civil servants had to remain in office
The hostile forces of the Nationalists remained on the island of Taiwan where they could not be pursued because the CCP had no amphibious forces
Hostility from abroad, particularly from the U.S., made the regime defensive

Period of Reconstruction (1949-53)

Political Reforms
There were 10 political parties in China in 1949, by 1952, they were all gone
A campaign was launched against counter-revolutionaries and enemies of the state
Churches were closed; Christianity, Buddhism, and Confucianism were denounced
Period of Reconstruction (1949-53)
Family Reforms
Marriage Law (1950):
Made marriage free and consensual
Gave equality to women
Women were allowed to inherit property
Many widespread practices were forbidden
Child marriage
Polygamy
Killing or selling of children
Binding the feet of girls
Family Reforms
Women were taken into the workforce
Positions of importance in the state and party were opened to women
Health Reforms
Clinics and child-care centers were set up
There were campaigns to improve hygiene and health
The opium addiction problem was solved by:
Drastic penalties for major suppliers and dealers
Amnesty for petty dealers
Rehabilitation for addicts
Public education campaigns
Economic Reforms
The aim was to control capitalism:
Businesses were confiscated from the landlords, GMD, and the Japanese
Most businesses became owned by the state
Inflation was controlled by:
Fixing wages and prices
Slashing public spending
Increasing taxes
Private banks were closed and a new state bank was established
Agricultural Reforms
Agrarian Reform Law (1950):
Feudal services and forced labor were abolished
Landlords had to refund rent deposits
The property of the rich landlords was divided up by the poor and middle peasants
1 million ex-landlords were executed
The peasants gained self-confidence and agricultural productivity increased
By May 1956, 90% of farmers were members of cooperatives
Industrial Reforms
The CCP had little contact with or knowledge of industry because they evicted foreign control
National Capitalism – state owned large industry, while there was private ownership of smaller ones until 1955/56
Maintaining Control
Three-Antis (1951)
Aimed at removing corrupt officials
Corruption, waste, and bureaucratism
10% of officials were fired and or executed
Five-Antis (1952)
Aimed at businesses
Bribery, tax evasion, fraud, theft of government property, theft of government secrets
75% of businesses were fined and were now subjected to tighter control

First Five Year Plan – 1953-1957

Soviet Union assisted with $300 million and 10,000 Russian engineers
Targeted the development of heavy industry: coal, steel, chemicals, automobile, and transport
Failure to meet the targets established by The National Resource Committee was the equivalent of failing China

Effects of the First Five Year Plan

Overall industrial output increased 15.5% per year (faster than the target of 14.7%)
Agriculture was constricted to pay for industrial expansion, so food production increased at an average of 2% per year, compared to 14% from 1949-52

Great Leap Forward – Second Five Year Plan (1958-1962)

Collectivization became the official policy in 1958 and was universally enforced
China’s land was divided into 70,000 communes
Mao wanted China to “walk on two legs” – develop both agriculture and industry at the same time
He hoped that it would help unemployment, cause a genuine communal culture, and create militia that could be used in place of a regular army
He accused peasants of hiding grain and used force against them
The food would be traded for money for weapons or used for fuel

Great Leap Forward

Mao ordered huge drives to build irrigation systems using poor equipment. Some of these projects are still unstable today
Forests were stripped of trees to be used as fuel
Anything that peasants could melt down into steel was put in backyard furnaces, but the steel was poor
Mao also wanted to raise output in factories, so common sense and rules went to the wayside in the name of speed. Accidents frequently caused tens of thousands of deaths
Agriculture failed because:
Unscientific agricultural methods were used
There was a shortage of agricultural labor because of peasants working on industrial projects
The peasants disliked losing their private lots
Natural disasters – droughts and floods

Results of the Great Leap Forward

38 million died of:
Being worked to death
Others were killed, tortured, or imprisoned
Famine (the average daily calorie intake was 1,534.8 for men and 1,200 for women – Aushwitz got between 1,300-1,700 calories per day)
Heavy industry developed (although it was still behind most large industrial countries)
Agriculture lagged behind

Maintaining Control

Foreigners were:
Made to register
Had their businesses confiscated and nationalized
Expelled
Thought Reform Campaign
Intended to unify the people and indoctrinize them with Communism
Intensive study of the writings of Mao
Little Red Book was published in 1963 and people were encouraged to read it as their “Bible”

Maintaining Control – Hundred Flowers Campaign (1957)

Mao indicated his supposed willingness to consider different opinions about how China should be governed
Given the freedom to express themselves, liberal and intellectual Chinese began opposing the Communist Party and questioning its leadership
This was initially tolerated and even encouraged. However, after a few months, Mao’s government reversed its policy and persecuted those who criticized, and were merely alleged to have criticized, the Party in what is called The Anti-Rightist Campaign

Maintaining Control – Anti-Rightist Campaign

Were two waves (1957 & 1959)
700,000 intellectuals were thrown out of their positions and professions
In every factory, 5% of the workers had to be denounced as “rightists”
All were sent to the countryside for reform – many died of malnutrition, illness, cold, overwork, and accidents doing unfamiliar jobs
Some were executed or committed suicide

Maintaining Control – Hundred Flowers/Anti-Rightist Campaigns

Two Opinions on the Hundred Flowers Campaign:
#1
Some have alleged that the Hundred Flowers Campaign was merely a ruse to root out “dangerous” thinking
#2
Others have suggested that Mao wanted to weaken those within his party who opposed him by having them bicker between themselves
However, he was surprised by the extent of criticism and the fact that it began to be directed at his own leadership
It was only then that he used it as a method of identifying and subsequently persecuting those critical of his regime

Maintaining Control – Cultural Revolution (1966-67)

Upheaval launched by Mao Zedong to:
Renew the spirit of revolution in China
Destroy the rise of differentiation between the proletariat and bourgeois
Restore his power and control
Society was inundated with Mao’s face, quotes, and other forms of propaganda

Maintaining Control – Cultural Revolution

Young people in schools and universities were told to condemn their teachers for poisoning their heads with “bourgeois ideas”
Their role was to “safeguard” Mao
Taking part in politics was something no one had been allowed to do under Mao, so they were excited
They were given goods and allowed to be violent
The youth were eventually called the “Red Guards”

Maintaining Control – Cultural Revolution

Eventually the terror turned to anything cultural, including art and artists. Culture was wiped out
The Red Guards confiscated tons of valuables, which was then sold
Then the terror turned to Party officials, his real target
Real schooling wouldn’t return until after Mao’s death

Mao Consolidates Power

Everyone had a file on them, many were tortured or killed (500,000), humiliated in public, committed suicide, or sent to labor camps
Housing space increased
An entire generation lost much of its schooling
Intellectuals suffered most
There was a loss of cultural heritage

Author: William Anderson (Schoolworkhelper Editorial Team)