12.1 – measuring the nation’s output and income
- Macroeconomics – part of economics that deals with the economy as a whole and uses aggregate measures of output, income, prices, and employment
- Gross Domestic Product is one of the most important macro measures that keep track of nation’s production, consumption, saving, and investment.
GDP – The measure of national output
- Gross domestic product (GDP) – the dollar value of all final goods, services, and structures produced within a country’s national borders during a one-year period, measure of final output
- To calculate the GDP, you multiply the good/service produced in a year by their prices, then adds them up to get the total dollar value of production
- Intermediate products – products that are components of other final products included in GDP
- Secondhand sales – sales of used goods not included in GDP
- Nonmarket transaction – economic activity not taking place in the market and, therefore, not included in GDP
- Underground economy – unreported legal and illegal activities that do not show up in GDP statistics
- GDP must be adjusted for inflation using base year
- Base year – year serving as point of comparison for other years in a price index or other statistical measure
- Real GDP – gross domestic product after adjustments for inflation
- Current GDP – gross domestic product measured in current prices, unadjusted for inflation
- Adjust GDP for population by GDP per capita
- GDP per capita – gross domestic product on a per person basis; can be expressed in current or constant dollars
- Limitation of GDP
- GDP tells us nothing about the composition of output
- GDP tells little about the impact of production on the quality of life
- GDP is produced to control activities that give us little utility or satisfaction, thus making GDP even larger
- GDP is our best measure of overall economic performance and well-being, because it is a measure of the voluntary transactions that take place in the market.
Economic sectors and circular flows
- Largest sector in the economy is the household – basic unit of consumer sector consisting of all person who occupy a house, apartment, or separate living quarters
- Unrelated individual – person living alone even though that person may have relatives living elsewhere
- Family – two or more persons living together who are related by blood, marriage, or adoption
- Second largest sector of macro economy is the business, or investment; consist of proprietorships, partnerships, and corporations that are responsible for producing the nation’s output
- The third sector is public sector, which includes all local, state, and federal levels of government.
- Forth sector is the foreign sector, which includes all consumers and producers outside of US.
The output expenditure model
- Output expenditure model – macroeconomic model describing aggregate demand by the consumer, investment, government, and foreign sectors
- GDP = consumer + investment + government + (X – M)
- (X-M) or net exports of goods and services – net expenditures by the foreign sector; equal to total exports less total imports
Chapter 13 – Economic instability
7B – section 1 – business cycles and fluctuations
- Business cycles – regular increases and decreases in real GDP
- Business fluctuations – irregular increases and decreases in real GDP
Business cycles and characteristics and causes
- The two phrases of business cycle are recession and expansion
- Recession – decline in real GDP lasting at least two quarters
- Peak – point in time when real GDP stops expanding and begins to decline
- Trough – point in time when real GDP stops declining and begins to expand
- Expansion – period of interrupted growth of real GDP
- Trend line – growth path the economy would follow if it were not interrupted by alternating periods of recession and recovery
- Depression – state of the economy with large numbers of unemployed people, declining real incomes, overcapacity in manufacturing plants, and general economic hardship
- Changes in capital expenditures are thought to be one cause of business cycle
- Innovation may be a cause also; competitions
- Another possible cause is Federal Reserve system’s policy on interest rates; low interest increase demand for loans
- External shocks such as oil prices, wars, and international conflicts
Forecasting business cycles
- Change in single statistics often indicates a change in GDP
- Leading economic indicator – statistical series that turns down before the economy turns down, or up before the economy turns up
- Several individual series of indicators are more accurate, often combined into an overall index
- Composite index of leading economic indicators (LEI) – composite index of 10 economic series that move up and down in advance of changes in the overall economy; statistical series used to predict turning points in the business cycle
- Econometric model – mathematical expression used to describe how the economy is expected to perform in the future
- GDP = C + I + G + (X – M)
13.2 – inflation
- Inflation – increase in the general level of prices of goods and services
- Deflation – decrease in the general level of prices for goods and services
Measuring prices and inflation
- Price index – statistical series used to measure changes in the price level over time
- Consumer price index (CPI) – series used to measure price changes for a representative sample of frequently used consumer items
- Market basket – representative selections of goods and services used to compile a price index
- Find the average price of each item in the market basket, then add up the prices to find the total cost of the market basket
- Base year – year serving as point of comparison for other years in a price index or other statistical measure
- Dividing the cost of every market basket by the base year market basket cost in order to convert it to index value
- Percentage change is found by dividing the change in the CPI by the beginning value of the CPI.
- Rate of inflation t4nds to change over long periods of time
- Creeping inflation – relatively low rate of inflation, usually 1 to 3 percent annually
- Hyperinflation – inflation in excess of 500 percent per year
- Usually the last stage before a total monetary collapse
- Stagflation – period of slow economic growth coupled with inflation
- Producer price index (PPI) – index used to measure prices received by domestic producers
- Implicit GDP price deflator – index used to measure price changes in GDP
- But CPI remains to be the most popular
Causes of inflation
- Demand pull inflation – explanation that prices rise because all sectors of the economy try to buy more goods and services than the economy can produce
- Prices are pulled up by demand, and consumers continue to purchase these items, leaving them in debt
- Cost push inflation – explanation that rising input costs, especially energy and organized labor, derive up the prices of products
- It may occur when there is an increase in oil prices
- Wage price spiral is the idea that workers ask for higher wages due to the high prices, producers try to recover these lost by raising their prices
- Excessive monetary growth is another explanation. Occurs when money supply grows faster than real GDP
Consequences of inflation
- The devalue of dollar and erode purchasing power
- Change people’s spending habits
- Tempts some people to speculate heavily in an attempt to take advantage of rising prices
- Alter the distribution of income
- Creditors – person or institution to whom money is owed
- Debtors – person who borrows and therefore owes money
7C – 13.3 – unemployment
Measuring unemployment
- Civilian labor force or labor force – non institutionalized part of the population aged 16 and over, either working or looking for a job
- unemployed – working for less than one hour per week for pay or profit in a non family owned business, while being available and having made an effort to find a job during the past month
- unemployment rate – percentage of people in the civilian labor force who are classified as unemployed
- number of unemployed persons/ civilian labor force
- unemployment rates are underestimated
- does not count those too frustrated or discouraged
- considered employed even when they only hold part time jobs
sources of unemployment
- frictional unemployment – unemployment involving workers changing jobs or waiting to go to new ones
- structural unemployment – unemployment caused by a fundamental change in the economy that reduces the demand for some workers
- outsourcing – hiring outside firms to perform non-core operations to lower operating costs
- technological unemployment – unemployment caused by technological developments or automation that makes some workers’ skills obsolete
- cyclical unemployment – unemployment directly related to swings in the business cycle
- seasonal unemployment – unemployment caused by annual changes in the weather or other conditions that reduce the demand for jobs
costs of instability
- economic instability carries enormous costs and can be measured
- GDP gap – difference between what the economy can and does produce
- Misery index or discomfort index – unofficial statistic that is the sum of the monthly inflation and unemployment rates
- When its unstable, there is a factor of uncertainty
- Politicians are also affected
- Higher crime rates
14.3 – conducting monetary policy
- Monetary policy – actions by the federal reserve system to expand or contract the money supply in order to affect the cost and availability of credit
- Interest rate – the price of credit to a borrower
- Easy money policy – monetary policy that results in lower interest rates and greater access to credit
- Tight money policy 0 monetary policy that results in higher interest rates and restricted access to credit
- For reserve requirements that congress passed, the Fed can change it around within border
- Total MBRs/reserve requirements
- Open market operations – sales or purchases of US government securities by the Fed
15.1 – 7d – Macroeconomic equilibrium
- Macroeconomics – part of economics that deals with the economy as a whole
Aggregate supply and demand
- Equilibrium price – price where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded
- Aggregated supply – the total value of all goods and services that all firms would produce in a specific period at various price levels
- Aggregate supply curve – hypothetical curve showing different levels of real GDP that would be produced at various price levels
- Price level includes price of everything produced
- Increases in aggregate supply are tied to the cost of production for an individual firm
- Factors such as higher oil prices, higher interest rates, and lower labor productivity contributes
- Aggregate demand – the total value of goods and services demanded at all different price levels
- Aggregate demand curve – hypothetical curve showing different levels of real GDP that would be purchased at various price levels
- Aggregate demand is affected by how much people decides to save compare to spend
Macroeconomic equilibrium
- Aggregate supply and demand provide a framework to help us analyze the impact of economic policy on economic growth and price stability
- Macroeconomic equilibrium – level of real GDP consistent with a given price level and marked by the intersection of aggregate supply and aggregate demand
15.2 – stabilization policies
- Medicare – federal health care program for senior citizens regardless of income
Demand side policies
- Designed to increase or decrease total demand in the economy
- Fiscal policy – use of government spending and revenue collection measures to influence the economy
- Keynesian economics – government spending and taxation policies suggested by john Maynard Keynes to stimulate the economy
- Consumer sector among the equation is the most stable, and investment spending would be the least stable
- Multiplier – magnified change in overall spending caused by a change in investment spending
- Accelerator – change in investment spending caused by a change in overall spending
- Temporary federal deficits can recover economy to its stable state.
- Automatic stabilizers – program that automatically provides benefits to offset a change in people’s incomes
- Entitlements – broad social programs that uses established eligibility requirements to provide health, nutritional, or income supplements to individuals
- Unemployment insurance – government program providing payments to unemployed workers
- Stabilizers are more effective due to the speed they can be implemented
Supply side policies
- Supply side policies – economic policies designed to stimulate the economy by increasing production
- Supply siders is reducing government’s role in the economy by
- Reducing government agencies
- Sped less at federal level
- Goal of supply side policies and demand side policies have the same goal: increasing production and decreasing unemployment without increasing inflation
- Deregulation – relation or removal of government regulations on business activities
- Lower tax rates allow individuals to keep more of the money they earn, which encourages them to work harder
- Limitation of supply side policies is lack of experience
Monetary policies
- Monetarism – school of thought stressing the importance of stable monetary growth to control inflation and stimulate long term economic growth
- Fluctuations in the money supply can be destabilizing element that leads to unemployment and inflation
- Monetary policy in which the money supply is tightened is called a contractionary monetary policy
- It changes the interest rate, which changes the GDP
- Expansionary monetary policy with larger money supply, over longer period of time, can lower interest rates
- Can act as inflation control
- Wage price controls – policies and regulations making it illegal for firms to give raises or raise prices without government permission
15.3 – economics and politics
Changing nature of economic policy
- Discretionary fiscal policy is policy that someone must choose ito implement
- Passive fiscal policies do not require new or special action to go into effect
- Structural fiscal policies are policies designed to strengthen the economy over a longer period of time
- Less used today because
- Various lags that inevitably occur between recognizing that there is a problem and actually doing something about it
- Decline of discretionary fiscal policy is the gridlock that can occur when the political parties in congress oppose each other’s views on the budget
- Ideology
- Monetary policy – actions by the federal reserve system to expand or contract the money supply in order to affect the cost and availability of credit
