| Method | Primary Feature | Main Advantages | Main Disadvantages |
| Case Studies | An individual, group, or event is examined in detail, often using several techniques (Ex. Observation, interview, psychological test) | Provides rich descriptive info, often suggesting hypotheses for further study. Can study rare phenomena in depth | Poor method for establishing cause-effect relations. The person or event may not be representative. Often relies heavily on the researcher’s subjective interpretations |
| Naturalistic Observation | Behaviour is observed in the setting in which it naturally occurs | Can provide detailed info about the nature, frequency, and context of naturally occurring behaviours | Poor method for establishing cause-effect relations. Observer’s presence, if known, may influence participants’ behaviour |
| Surveys | Questions or tests are administered to a sample drawn from a larger population | A properly selected, representative sample typically yields accurate info about the broader population | Unrepresentative samples can provide misleading info about the population. Interviewer bias and social desirability bias can distort findings |
| Correlational Studies | Variables are measured and the strength of the association between them is calculated. Naturalistic observation and surveys also are often used to examine associations between variables | Correlation allows prediction. May help establish how well findings from experiments generalize to more natural settings. Can examine issues that cannot be studied ethically or practically in experiments | Correlation does not imply causation, due to bidirectional causality problem (possible that X caused Y, Y caused X, or both influenced each other) and third variable problem (X may have been caused by Z) |
| Experiments | Independent variables are manipulated and their effects on dependent variables are measured | The optimal method for examining cause-effect relations. The ability to control extraneous factors helps rule out alternative explanations | Confounding of variables (cannot tell which it is). variable influenced the dep. variable), demand characteristics (cues), placebo effects (expectations), and experimenter expectancies can threaten the validity of causal conclusions |
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